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Item Rezagados durante la crisis económica: pobreza entre adultos mayores en Costa Rica(Población y Salud en Mesoamérica; Volumen 2, Número 1, artículo 1, 2004) Brenes Camacho, GilbertThe economic crisis at the beginning of the eighties had an impact on the 20 th -century Costa Rica in many different ways. Government programs were successful in reducing the proportion of poor people from a 35% in 1985 to a 23% in 2000. This article utilizes official household surveys corresponding to the period 1981-2002 and population census to perform an estimation of age, cohort and period effects, in order to show that poverty among the elderly can be understood as a cohort effect. Their poverty conditions are associated with their low schooling, mainly among men. The probability of having the right to a retirement pension and the fact that the people with lower educational level got low income during their late working years, mediate in the relationship between schooling and poverty as a cohort effect.Item Left behind in the economic crisis: poverty among the elderly in Costa Rica(California Center for Population Research, vol.36(10), 2005) Brenes Camacho, GilbertAbstract The economic crisis at the beginning of the eighties impacted 20th-century Costa Rica in many different ways. Government programs were successful in reducing the proportion of poor people from 35% in 1985 to 23% in 2000. This article utilizes official Household Surveys corresponding to the period 1981-2002 and Population Censuses to perform an estimation of age, cohort, and period effects, in order to show that poverty among the elderly can be understood as a cohort effect. Their poverty conditions are associated with their low schooling, mainly among men. The probability of having the right to a retirement pension and the fact that individuals with lower educational levels earned low income during their later working years, intervene in the relationship between schooling and poverty as a cohort effect. Soon after the end of the civil war in 1948, Costa Rica underwent political and economic changes that aided the expansion of the social benefits initialized in the 40’s, such as universalizing Social Security, promoting health and educational policy, and providing infrastructure and services to both rural and urban communities. Nevertheless, at the end of the 70’s, increasing oil prices had a strong negative impact on many countries around the world. Costa Rica was no exception, and during the 1980 – 1982 period it went through an economic crisis characterized by hyperinflation, increased unemployment and underemployment rates, and the declaration of a moratorium on foreign debt payments (Barahona Montero 1999a). The governments after 1982 were relatively successful in promoting economic recovery by changing the development model based on import substitution to one promoting non-traditional product exports and tourism (Barahona Montero 1999a, González Mejía 1999). In spite of the recovery and public policies designed to combat poverty, since 1991, it has not been possible to reduce the proportion of poor households below 18%, maintaining an annual average of around 20%.2 In addition, economists consider that within this one-fifth of the nation’s population, there is a group of “hard-core poor”, i.e., persons who systematically live on a minimal income, and who cannot easily climb out of their chronic condition (Proyecto Estado de la Nación-PEN 2002). One group in which the proportion of poor is relatively high with regard to the rest of the population is that of the elderly: 31% of individuals 65 or more years of age live in households with incomes below the poverty line, according to the 2002 Encuesta de Hogares (National Household Survey). The objective of this paper is to show that if poverty among the elderly is associated with structural characteristics within this group of the population, its incidence can be represented as a cohort effect. In other words, a large percentage of the Costa Rican elderly would be living in poverty, not because old age leads to poverty, but because the characteristics that they acquired throughout their lives – given the historical moments they lived – make them more susceptible to being poor, in comparison with other groups born more recently. In order to provide separate estimates of the cohort, age, and period effects, we consolidated the Encuestas de Hogares from 1980 to 2002, whose basic dependent variable is the proportion of persons living in poor households. The paper presents variations of these effects produced by the inclusion of certain independent variables in the model, in particular the level of education of the cohorts. It also emphasizes the importance of the economic crisis at the beginning of the 80’s on the incidence of poverty among the elderly, and at the end of the paper, we relate this phenomenon to educational levels among these generations and their access to Social Security.Item Tipos de hogar, ciclo de vida familiar y pobreza en Costa Rica 1987-2002(Población y Salud en Mesoamérica; Volumen 2, Número 1, 2004) Barquero Barquero, Jorge; Trejos Solórzano, Juan DiegoEl propósito de este estudio fue el de explorar las condiciones de vulnerabilidad sociodemográfica en Costa Rica, a partir del análisis de los cambios en los tipos de hogar y el ciclo de vida de las familias en condiciones de pobreza, mediante la utilización de información de las encuestas de hogares de 1987, 1994 y 2002. Los principales hallazgos revelan modificaciones importantes en la estructura y composición de los hogares y familias en el periodo de estudio, asociado a cambios en la dinámica sociodemográfica de la sociedad costarricense. La evolución en la incidencia de la pobreza por tipo de hogar, muestra que ésta es mayor entre los hogares nucleares que cuentan con hijos y al convertirse en monoparentales. La incidencia es más alta en 1987, se reduce para 1994 y prácticamente se mantiene para el 2002. No obstante que en todas las fases del ciclo de vida familiar la incidencia de la pobreza disminuyó en el periodo 1987-1994, en el periodo más reciente al 2002 la incidencia es mayor en las etapas en que las familias poseen más hijos dependientes menores de 18 años, lo que expone a estas familias a una mayor vulnerabilidad a situaciones de pobreza. Los hogares y familias con mayor riesgo de vulnerabilidad ante la pobreza, se hallaron entre aquellos con mayor cantidad de miembros dependientes menores de edad y jefeados por mujeres. No se encontraron evidencias significativas para afirmar que el estancamiento observado en los niveles de pobreza en el país hasta el 2002, fuese producto de los cambios encontrados en los patrones familiares, aunque ciertamente se hace necesario profundizar el análisis de las interrelaciones entre pobreza y cambios demográficos.Item Types of Household, Family Life Cycle and Poverty in Costa Rica(TheThird International Population Conference of the Central American Isthmus,2003, 2005) Barquero Barquero, Jorge; Trejos Solórzano, Juan DiegoOver the last ten years, improvement in poverty conditions has stalled in Costa Rica, but there have been significant advances in aspects relating to the demographic transition. Poverty levels are holding around 20% of households below the pov erty line, while mortality indicators have achieved a life expectancy of 78 years and fertility has reached historical replacement levels. This situation is suitable for conceptual and empirical studies to provide information regarding the relationship be tween the phenomenon of poverty and conditions of socio - demographic vulnerability still being felt by a significant proportion of the country’s households. This study is aimed at exploring problems of socio - demographic vulnerability in Costa Rica, startin g with an analysis of the composition and changes in the poorest households by means of two key concepts: Type of Household and Family Life Cycle, which are operationalized in variables based on the information from the Household Surveys of 1987, 1994, and 2002. Household or family typologies (Household Type) refer to the composition of the familial and non - familial arrangements within each household, starting with kinship relations among household members, with regards to a reference person, which general ly is the individual considered head of household. Family Life Cycle refers to the different phases or stages that family arrangements usually go through, from constitution of the initial family nucleus (couple with or without children), passing through different events of change according to the growth of the initial group and the ages of its members, until the nucleus is dissolved or dispersed into new nuclei and family arrangements. Both concepts are related to demographic and socio - cultural patterns, such as marriage, fertility, mortality, survival strategies, cultural practices regarding sharing a dwelling or co - habitation, material living conditions and the socio - economic levels of the household or family members. The hypothesis applied here, which is essentially exploratory, is that the type of household and the family life cycle phase can also be seen as an expression of the conditions of socio - demographic vulnerability, which worsen in households below the poverty line. This vulnerability exposes the households and their members to greater risks of social exclusion and facilitates intergenerational reproduction of poverty. After this introduction, the paper consists of a first section, which delineates the evolution of poverty in Costa Rica and the main characteristics of the poor. The following section provides the major conceptual and methodological orientations that guided this research; the fourth section describes all the households with regards to the two study variables Household Lifecycle (HLC) and Household Type (HT). The fifth section delves into the major findings on poverty according to the HLC and the characteristics of the component members; finally, the principal study conclusions are summarized.